Kenneth W. Yates

EDITOR
Journal of the Grace Evangelical Society

I. INTRODUCTION

In Eph 6:11, Paul exhorts his readers to “put on the whole armor of God.” In 6:13 he repeats the command, even though he uses a different but synonymous verb. These are the only times in the NT where believers are commanded to do this.

It is safe to say that in the West, we naturally see these verses in a highly individualistic way. Almost automatically, we assume that Paul is telling each believer to put on the articles of armor he lists in Eph 6:14-17. Many Christians have purchased “armor of God kits” at Christian bookstores for their children, and have seen such toys used in this way in children’s programs in local churches. These kits come with a helmet, a sword, a shield, covering for one’s feet, and a plastic breastplate. Each young person is told to live righteously, share the gospel with others, grow in faith, and study the Word of God. The different pieces of armor represent these different spiritual disciplines.

Adults often interpret these commands in the same way. We measure our own individual spirituality by how well we are wearing the armor Paul discusses. We are to see ourselves as dressed for battle against Satan and make sure that as we confront him, we are taking advantage of the weapons God has given each one of us.

It is not difficult to find support for this understanding in Evangelical commentaries on Ephesians. Stott sees the individual Christian being called to battle here. He warns that there are some Christians who think they can fight against Satan in their own strength and armor. This is a mistake. Each believer must take advantage of God’s enabling power. At the same time, the believer must co-operate with God in the battle. He must decide to put on the armor.¹ Bruce takes a similar view. In his view, Eph 6:10-12 describes individual warfare. In 2 Cor 12:7-9 Paul describes how, through prayer, he took advantage of the resources God gave him to combat Satan. That is an example for all believers to follow. We must have the Lord’s help if we want to be victorious in our individual struggle with evil forces.²

Lloyd-Jones takes Paul’s admonition in this manner but in an extreme way. In his view, one of the tricks of the devil is to rob the believer of the assurance of his salvation. For each Christian to gain assurance he must have a radical change of life, which Paul illustrates by the armor of God the believer wears. The person who claims to be a believer but does not have the visible signs pictured by the different pieces of armor is a liar.³ Best also takes the view that failure to take up the armor of God determines the final destiny of each individual. For him, failure in this spiritual warfare will result in the loss of eternal salvation.⁴

Whatever view one takes about the subject of these commands, the notion that one must put on the armor of God to either prove one’s possession of eternal life or in order to keep it is a mistaken one. Eternal life is given as a free gift by God’s grace through faith in Christ alone. As such, it cannot be lost, nor can it be gained by practicing spiritual disciplines.

This article will argue that the command to put on the armor of God is not directed to individual Christians. It is a corporate command, directed towards the Church. Best at least hints at this possibility when he acknowledges that the verses immediately before Eph 6:10-12 are addressed to groups within the Church and not individual believers.⁵ Hoehner also maintains that Paul is calling the Church to battle here, even though he says this command by Paul is directed primarily to individuals.⁶

As will be discussed below, there is a connection between 6:10- 12 and 1:19-21. In considering whether Paul is making a corporate command in 6:11, we note that his discussion in 1:19-21 is relevant. Hughes sees the corporate nature inherent in 1:19-21 when he says that Paul is clearly talking about the Church and that the exalted Christ has given power and gifts to the Church. However, he then says that Paul is addressing individuals.⁷

Both Kitchen and Arnold are more direct in seeing a corporate command here. In Eph 6:10-12, Satan is at war with the Church, in Eph 6:10-12, not with individual Christians.⁸ Paul is calling the Church as a whole to battle against this enemy and his forces.

The idea that Paul is addressing the Church goes against a strong western tradition of individualistic spirituality. To challenge that tradition, this article will first look at the strong corporate emphasis in Ephesians, which suggests that Eph 6:10-12 most naturally points to that emphasis. Then, it will be seen that these verses form an inclusio with Eph 1:19-21, where Paul speaks of the Church. A discussion will follow on what Satan’s battle with the Church involves. Finally, the article will suggest certain applications of such a corporate command for believers today.

II. THE CORPORATE EMPHASIS IN EPHESIANS

Even a casual reading of Ephesians leads the reader to see that the Church is the main topic of the book. Paul explains that the Church is a mystery that was not revealed in the OT (1:9; 3:3-9; 5:32; 6:19). In Stott’s words, Paul says that Christ through the work of the Spirit has brought about this “new society.”⁹

The predestination mentioned in Eph 1:5 does not refer to God’s choosing individuals for an eternity in the kingdom or the lake of fire. Instead, Paul’s point is that in eternity past God predestined that the Church would be the Body of Christ. This body would be comprised of both Jewish and Gentile believers. Even though it was not revealed in the OT, it was God’s determined plan that the Church would rule with Christ when He comes in glory.¹⁰

Not surprisingly, throughout the book, Paul seeks to promote the unity of the body. Specifically, he wants Jewish and Gentile believers to understand that they form a single body. He speaks of Jewish believers who were the “first” to believe in Christ. Paul refers to these Christians as “we” since he was one of them (1:12).

But he quickly adds that “you” (Gentiles) were also “sealed with the Holy Spirit” (1:13). The Church, made up of both Jews and Gentiles, is a demonstration of the mystery of God’s will (1:9), and is now God’s “purchased possession” (1:14).¹¹ After discussing what God has done for the believers at Ephesus, Paul says that the Church is the Body of Christ (1:22-23).

Ephesians 2 continues the idea of unity between Jewish and Gentile Christians. Both “you” (Gentile believers) and “we” (Jewish believers) have been placed in Christ, that is, His Body (2:1, 3, 6). Together, they are God’s “workmanship” (2:10).

The idea of being God’s workmanship is traditionally understood to mean that each believer is a work of God. Paul adds that this workmanship was “created in Christ Jesus for good works.” This is often interpreted to mean that when a person believes in Jesus, he is a new creation, and God has given each believer good works to do. Some then take this to mean that the good works that a believer does is proof that by His grace God has saved him. God accomplishes these good works in everyone who has been truly saved.¹² The ramifications of seeing an emphasis on the individual in Ephesians becomes apparent. It leads at least some to believe that assurance of salvation is found in good works.

However, even the hint of such false teaching disappears if Paul is dealing with corporate realities. Ephesians 2:10 does not teach that each believer is a “workmanship” of God. The word is in the singular. If Paul was talking about all believers, the word would have been in the plural, as it is in Rom 1:20. In the plural, the point would be that believers are the works of art created by God.

Instead, Paul is speaking of a single work of God. The Church is God’s creation. The meaning is clear. In uniting both Jewish and Gentile believers into one body, God has created His masterpiece, the Church. In the eternal plan of God, He has prepared work for the Church to do. The Church is the instrument through which Christ works in the world today.

The discussion in Ephesians 2 supports this interpretation. Prior to the church age, Gentiles were “far off” regarding the promises God had made to the nation of Israel. But Paul goes on to say that God has made peace between Jews and Gentiles when He formed the Church. The Church is the “new man” God has created. The Church is now the holy temple of God, indwelt by the Spirit (2:13-22).

In Ephesians 3, Paul specifically states that God had revealed the mystery of the Church to him. Gentiles are fellow members of the Body of Christ (3:6). The Church shows the wisdom of God (3:10). Who in the OT could have seen the formation of the Church? Who could have considered that Gentiles would become equal members of the body that would rule with the Messiah in His kingdom? Such is the power and wisdom of God.

Ephesians 4 continues to speak about corporate truths. Believers are to love one another, being at peace and unified. They belong to one body (4:4). The Spirit has given spiritual gifts so that the body can mature and grow to be like the Head of the Body, Christ (4:11-16). The members of the body are to share with one another, edify one another, and forgive one another (4:28-32).

As members of the one body, they are called to walk in love towards one another (5:2). This would impact even the way they speak to each other (5:19). Because of who they were in Christ, they were to be subject to one another in the same body (5:21). This subjection should show itself in how different groups within the Church relate to each other. These groups included husbands and wives, parents and children, and slaves and owners (5:22–6:9).

After all these admonitions that the Jewish and Gentile believers at Ephesus see themselves as a body, and are to live in that way, Paul tells them to put on the whole armor of God (6:10-12). Even though it appeals to our individual self-worth and our cultural sensibilities, to see this as directed to individual believers should cause us to pause. After speaking of the mystery of the Church and the need for unity and peace, would Paul conclude his letter with a command for each individual believer to fight against Satan by himself? Wouldn’t that go against the corporate emphasis he had so forcefully advocated? Why would a particular believer need the gifts available in the body if he could rely on his own armor, even if provided by God, to combat the evil forces around him? This understanding of the armor of God seems to promote a picture of Christian warfare carried on by Rambo, who takes on the enemy by himself. Such a picture contradicts what Paul teaches in the book.

The idea that Eph 6:10-12 is speaking to the Church as a body also finds support when one considers it has many similarities with Eph 1:19-21, which clearly speaks of the Church and not individual believers. These two passages form an inclusio of the book.

III. THE INCLUSIO OF EPH 1:19-21

As Paul begins to close the Book of Ephesians in 6:10-12, it is evident that he reminds his readers of things he discussed in the first chapter. In addition to prepositions and adjectives, there are also six words that are found in both 6:10-12 and 1:19-21. All of these words are uncommon ones, which strongly suggests that their occurrence in both places is more than a coincidence.

The phrase “His mighty power” in 1:19 (kratous tēs ischuos autou) contains the same Greek words as the “power of His might” in 6:10 (kratei tēs ischuos autou).¹³ In fact, the words for “power” and “might” only occur in these two places in Ephesians. The entire phrase occurs nowhere else in Pauline writings.

The word for “principality” (archē) and a different word for “power” (exousia) also occur in both 1:21 and 6:12. The reference to “this age” (aiōn houtos) also occurs in these same verses. The word for “heavenly” (epouranios) is found in both 1:20 and 6:12.¹⁴

Even though they are not the exact same, there are words in the two passages which suggest a link between the two as well. In 1:19, when Paul speaks of the greatness of Christ’s “power,” he uses still another word to describe the strength of the Lord. In 6:10, Paul tells the church at Ephesus to be “strong” in the Lord. In 1:19 the word is a noun. In 6:10 he uses a related verb form of the noun.

Arnold makes an interesting suggestion in reference to another possible connection between 1:19-21 and 6:10-12. In 6:12, Paul mentions “rulers” of darkness. The word only occurs here in the NT (kosmokratoras). It seems clear that this refers to some kind of evil angelic forces, like the principalities and powers found in both passages. It is not found in 1:19-21, but in verse 21, Paul does mention that Christ is greater than “every name that is named.” Perhaps the “name” of these evil rulers is an example of what Paul is talking about.¹⁵

To observe the clear connection between these two passages, let us view them side by side. The bold words represent the exact same words and the italics the possible synonymous connections:

and what is the exceeding greatness of His power toward us who believe, according to the working of His mighty power which He worked in Christ when He raised Him from the dead and seated Him at His right hand in the heavenly places, far above all principality and power and might and dominion, and every name that is named, not only in this age but also in that which is to come (1:19-21, emphasis added).

Finally, my brethren, be strong in the Lord and in the power of His might. Put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this age, against spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places (6:10-12, emphasis added).

In Ephesians 1, then, Paul says that God had chosen the Church in eternity past. Christ has risen from the dead, far above all heavenly powers. The Lord will reign in the world to come. The Church has been risen with Him. Paul concludes this discussion by saying that Christ has become the Head of the Church. In Him, the Church will also reign (Eph 1:22-23). Such is the power displayed in the Church because of and in Christ.

The similarities of 1:19-21 compel the reader to conclude that Paul has the same ideas in mind in 6:10-12. The Church is to rely on the power of Christ. This power is necessary because the Church is at war with these heavenly forces. If that is the case, it is the Church that is called on to take up the armor of God. This certainly agrees with the emphasis on the Church throughout the Book of Ephesians.

Often, however, Christians do not think in terms of corporate spiritual warfare. It is difficult to understand how a church could take up the armor of God. It would be beneficial to look more closely at what Paul is saying in Eph 6:10-12.

IV. SATAN’S BATTLE WITH THE CHURCH

Satan is not mentioned in Ephesians 1 when Paul discusses the powers and authorities in the heavenly places. The devil is, however, named in 6:11. He is the one behind these heavenly forces. These forces are described as belonging to the darkness of this age (6:12). Their evil nature is also seen in that they are further designated as “spiritual hosts of wickedness.” Specifically, the phrase “spiritual hosts of wickedness” is probably in apposition to the phrase the “rulers of the darkness of this age” and refers to the same group of evil forces.

In 1:21, taken by itself, the principalities and powers could be said to refer to unfallen angels and even human government. However, when considered with the inclusio of 6:12, there is little doubt that Paul is describing evil, fallen angels.¹⁶ They have as their leader the devil. They are at war with and are attacking the Church. The word “spiritual” describes the nature of these enemies of the Church. The adjective “heavenly” indicates from where they originate or from where they are able to operate.

In 6:12, when Paul speaks of principalities, powers, and rulers, he may be describing characteristics of Satan and the fallen angels. They have power and the authority to exercise that power. This authority extends over a wide area around the world. If the phrase “spiritual hosts of wickedness” is indeed appositional, it describes the character of these beings who have this extensive power and authority.

It is also possible that these words describe different types of fallen angels. This would mean there is a hierarchy among them, with Satan being their commander.¹⁷ This would not be surprising since there is a hierarchy among the unfallen angels. Some good angels are archangels, some cherubim, other seraphim, and many others are what could be called ordinary angels. The satanic evil forces evidently are arranged like an army, with different soldiers in that army possessing different levels of strength, authority, and the sphere in which they can use that power.

The word “rulers” in 6:12 indicates some kind of authority in this world, as does the references to “this age.” Even though these forces are spiritual in nature and originate in the heavens, they exercise authority over men and women on earth. In some sense they have an influence in the affairs and activities of mankind.¹⁸ This includes the affairs of the Church.

The Scriptures do not give much information on the hierarchy of the fallen angels and how they use their power among mankind. The Book of Daniel, however, does give us a glimpse of these unseen realities. In Daniel 10, Daniel prays to God, but there is a delay in the answer given by the Lord because of angelic warfare.

Daniel 10:10-21 speaks of both unfallen and fallen angels. Those involved in the warfare are called “princes,” a word which speaks of authority and power. A fallen angel is called by this title in v 13. It is clear that this is an evil being since he resists the work of God. Michael, the unfallen, holy angel, is also called a prince in vv 13 and 21.

A good angel attempted to give Daniel the answer to his prayer, but the evil prince of Persia prevented this from happening for twenty-one days. In this case, at least, God allowed this evil angel to hinder the will of God among His people.¹⁹

This evil angel has some type of authority over the nation of Persia. The kingdom of Greece (Dan 10:20) will also be impacted with this angelic combat. Walvoord comments that it is plain that there is evil angelic influence on the political and social conditions in the world. He also maintains that this is what Paul has in mind in Eph 6:10-12.²⁰ Leupold states that this passage in Daniel points out that evil angels exercise a strong influence over nations and governments, even to the point of controlling certain nations’ policies. They do so to thwart the will and work of God.²¹

Daniel also mentions the “prince of Greece” (v 20). The angel who speaks to Daniel said that not only would that angel have to fight against the evil prince of Persia, but also with the one associated with Greece. This most naturally refers to a fallen angel who has influence over Greece. The reference to the prince of Greece could also refer to the coming of Alexander the Great. Evil forces would attempt to play a role in his world-wide conquest.²²

Walvoord makes an interesting observation that speaks of the power of these evil forces as they oppose the work of God. In the Book of Daniel, Greece and Persia are two of the kingdoms that receive much focus (Daniel 2, 7–10, 11). These kingdoms would greatly impact God’s chosen people Israel. Many of the details of God’s prophecy to the nation of Israel during this period involved an unseen struggle of angelic forces concerning the will of God.²³ In Ephesians, Paul says that the Church is the people of God in this dispensation, in “this age.” God had determined this in eternity past, and the Church has been given the task of doing the work of the Lord (Eph 2:10). It is not surprising that evil forces would attempt to thwart that work in the world today, just as they did in the time of Daniel.

In Eph 2:2, Paul calls Satan the “prince of the power of the air,” who has influence over the world.²⁴ John says that the whole world lies under his power (1 John 5:19). In 2 Cor 4:4, Paul calls him “the god of this age.” The words “this age” are the same ones used here in Eph 6:12. When Satan tempted the Lord in the wilderness, he offered Him the glory of all the kingdoms of the world if the Lord would worship him (Matt 4:8-9). The Lord does not dispute Satan’s rights in this offer. In all these cases, including Daniel 10, we see that Satan has authority over the nations of the world.

God can and does limit the exercise of the power and authority Satan and his forces have over mankind and the nations of the world. This is seen in the angelic warfare described in Daniel 10, as well as in the account of Job (Job 1:12; 2:6).²⁵ But in this present age, it is correct to say that these evil forces exercise ruling power over the world. This would explain the reason for Satan’s attack on the Church.

A. The Role of the Church in the World to Come

In Eph 1:19-23, Paul says that Christ will rule the world to come. He has been seated at the right hand of the Father (v 20), which appears to be an allusion to Psa 110:1.²⁶ The author of Hebrews explains how this Psalm looks forward to the day when all Christ’s enemies will be defeated and, as a result, He will rule forever.²⁷ These enemies certainly include Satan and his evil forces that wage war against His Church.

Ephesians tells us that the Church is the Body of Christ and will rule with Him in that day (1:22-23). While this does not mean that every individual Christian will rule with Christ, the Body of Christ will. This is the predestined will of God.

God originally created man and woman to rule over the works of His hands (Gen 1:28). In Christ, the Church will fulfill God’s created purpose (Psa 8:5-6; Heb 2:5-10).²⁸ Whatever power and authority Satan and his forces have in this present age over the world will be gone when Christ returns with His Church. In this present age, the Church is preparing for the role it will have for eternity.

In eternity past, God predestined the Church for this glorious future. In the Church, God has brought together both Jews and Gentiles to accomplish His created purpose for men and women. The Church shows the power and wisdom of God. In Eph 3:10, Paul specifically states this and connects it with the spiritual warfare of 6:10-12. He uses the same words to describe both the powers attacking the Church and their place of origin: “…to the intent that now the manifold wisdom of God might be made known by the church to the principalities and powers in the heavenly places” (Eph 3:10, emphasis added).

It is to be noted that it is the Church as a whole which teaches fallen angels something. In the Church, God demonstrates His wisdom to these evil forces. It is the Church which will have authority in the world to come. In a very real sense, it can be said that the Church will assume the power that Satan and his fallen angels have over the world in this present age. They attack the organization that will replace them. The power that Satan exercises today is limited by what God allows, so the power of the Body of Christ in His eternal kingdom will be even greater. The birth of the Church and its continued existence show Satan and his angels the hidden purpose of God that was a mystery in the OT (Eph 3:9).²⁹

While we cannot understand much about the spiritual world, it is clear that Satan has an intense hatred towards the Church. Evil forces cannot attack Christ personally, so they turn their attention to His Body. Satan wanted to prevent the first Adam from ruling over the works of God’s hand and certainly resents the fact that the Body of the Second Adam will. He evidently wants to see the Church fail in the works that God has given it (Eph 2:10). Perhaps this is out of jealousy, or perhaps he takes evil pleasure when the Church does not honor its Head. Christ is dishonored when the Church does not function as Paul instructs it to in the Book of Ephesians. One might suggest that Satan enjoys it when the Church does not conduct itself in a way that reflects what it will be.

In the context of the Book of Ephesians, one of the aims of Satan is to create division in the Body of Christ (4:1-3). He attempts to make local assembly members fight with one another. He does not want to see a church where the members love one another (5:2), grow in sound doctrine, and living righteously (4:11-16).

Even though we cannot fully understand the thinking of the evil one or all the reasons for his actions, Paul makes it clear that he and fallen angels have an interest in the Church. This is supported by the fact that good angels do as well.

B. First Peter 1:12

Peter speaks of a salvation in the future for believers (1 Pet 1:9). While many assume this refers to salvation from the lake of fire, it is clear that is not the case. Believers already have eternal life. It is not something they will receive in the future. In addition, this salvation will occur as the result of trials (1 Pet 1:5-9). Eternal life is a free gift and is not gained through trials.

The salvation that Peter talks about here is sharing in the rule of Christ. The soul, or life, that suffers with Christ is saved in the sense that the works done have eternal value and are not lost. It is something in addition to receiving eternal life.³⁰ In speaking about this kind of salvation, Peter comments that “angels desire to look into” this matter (1:12). The phrase pictures the angels as longing to understand something and they try to gaze into the matter to have a clearer view of things. Simply put, even good angels cannot fully comprehend the glorious future of men and women in the Church who will reign with Christ.

C. Hebrews 1:14

The author of Hebrews also addresses the interest good angels have concerning believing men and women ruling in the world to come. Like Peter, he uses the word “salvation” to describe the honor that will be given to them. Those who rule will be saved from all their trials and enemies after they have suffered with the Lord.³¹

These angels, who are stronger and wiser than human beings, serve these men and women who will rule with Christ. In some ways, the good heavenly beings assist these people as they prepare for their eternal roles of ruling over the works of God’s hands.

It is of interest that in Heb 1:13 the author of Hebrews quotes from Psa 110. All enemies will be put under Christ’s feet. Christ is currently seated at the right hand of God. Paul refers to this in Eph 1:20 when he says that all evil forces will be a part of those defeated. On that day, the Church will rule with Christ. Unfallen angels are amazed at what the Lord has done and will do for believers. Fallen angels are in spiritual warfare against this group of men and women.

V. CONCLUSION AND APPLICATION

The Book of Ephesian emphasizes the Church, which was predestined by God to be the Body of the King and has a glorious future. It will rule with Him.

When Paul tells the readers to put on the armor of God, he is telling the Church to do so. The reason the Church needs to put on this armor is that it is under attack. The Church is to see itself as being at war. Satan and his forces understand that the Church will one day rule over creation in place of the power they exercise in a limited way now.

The Church is a display of the power and wisdom of God in accomplishing His purposes. The rule and power of Satan and the fallen angels in the affairs of this world will soon come to an end. The hatred they have towards the coming King is directed towards His Body.

In light of the future the Church will have, it is to conduct itself in a manner that reflects its Head and this glorious future. Like its Head, they are called to be a church where the members love and serve one another. The Church is to be unified as a body. It is to grow by the power of the Spirit that united them as one body. As a body, they are to live in a righteous way. This includes growth in sound doctrine through the word of God. These are the pieces of armor the Church is to wear (Eph 6:13-17). In doing so, the Church will become like the King it represents.

This may sound strange to anyone accustomed to hearing about spiritual warfare in individualistic terms. The Book of Ephesians challenges us to take a corporate view of things. How we each do as individuals in our walk with the Lord and how much we are being transformed into His image are certainly important. But it also important how the local church we are attending is doing in these areas.

Where we attend church is important. The doctrine taught in that church is as well. We are to pray for one another and be concerned about how the church is doing spiritually. We can be spiritually immature and lukewarm both as an individual and as a church body.

In the West, we have a tendency to switch churches if that church does not meet some individual need or preference. We may not like the music, or perhaps it does not have enough activities for the children. If my preferences are not being met, I may very well go church shopping. It might not even occur to us that the focus should not be on us as individuals, but on the health of the church as a whole and our role as a member of the Body of Christ.

To a large degree, we have lost the ability to see the importance of the Church. This may explain why we even read Ephesians as though it described individual spiritual realities instead of corporate ones. Almost universally, for example, the mention of predestination is seen as God choosing individuals.

Ephesians forces us to look at things differently. We should see ourselves as part of a body, and not just as an individual. Of primary importance for us in this area should be whether the church we are attending is teaching sound doctrine. Such teaching will play a large role in a church that lives righteously. We should pray that the body grow to be like the Lord and to hear Him say at the Judgment Seat of Christ to the church, “Well done.” The evil principalities, powers, and rulers of this age are fighting to prevent that.

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¹ John R. W. Stott, The Message of Ephesians (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1979), 266.

² F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Ephesians (London, England: Pickering & Inglis, 1973), 217-19.

³ D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones, The Christian Warfare: An Exposition of Ephesians 6:10-13 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1976), 222-26. Lloyd-Jones remarks that the lukewarm people at Laodicea in Rev 3:16 are examples of people who have not put on the armor of God and demonstrate they are not children of God.

⁴ Ernest Best, Ephesians (New York, NY: T & T Clark, 1989), 586.

⁵ Ibid., 585. He claims that Paul immediately switches from addressing groups to addressing individuals.

⁶ Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 818.

⁷ R. Kent Hughes, Ephesians: The Mystery of the Body of Christ (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1990), 60.

⁸ Martin Kitchen, Ephesians, ed. John Court (New York, NY: Routledge, 1994), 119-26; Clinton E. Arnold, Ephesians: Power and Magic (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1997), 67.

⁹ Stott, Message, 24.

¹⁰ Shawn Lazar, Chosen to Serve (Denton, TX: Grace Evangelical Society, 2017), 201-12. See also William Klein, The New Chosen People: A Corporate View of Election (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1990), 180.

¹¹ Ibid., 47.

¹² John F. MacArthur, Jr., Faith Works: The Gospel According to the Apostles (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1993), 61.

¹³ The phrases use the same word for “power” (kratous/kratei); it is in the genitive case in 1:19 and in the dative in 6:10.

¹⁴ The word “places” is placed after “heavenly” in the NKJV in both verses even though it does not occur in the original Greek in either verse. It is a legitimate addition, adding clarification.

¹⁵ Arnold, Ephesians, 67. It is also possible that the word for “ruler” in 6:12 is synonymous with the word “dominion” in 1:21 (kuriotētos).

¹⁶ Hoehner, Ephesians, 279, 826.

¹⁷ William J. Larkin, Ephesians: A Handbook on the Greek Text (Waco, TX: Baylor Univ Press, 2009), 158; Hughes, Ephesians, 215.

¹⁸ Larkin, Ephesians, 24.

¹⁹ Gleason L. Archer Jr., “Daniel,” The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol 7 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1985), 124-25.

²⁰ John F. Walvoord, Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1971), 247.

²¹ Herbert C. Leupold, Exposition of Daniel (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Press, 1949), 457-58.

²² Charles L. Feinberg, Daniel: The Kingdom of the Lord (Winona Lake, IN: BMH Books, 1981), 145.

²³ Walvoord, Daniel, 250.

²⁴ Francis Foulkes, The Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963), 69.

²⁵ Archer, “Daniel,” 125.

²⁶ Hoehner, Ephesians, 279.

²⁷ Kenneth W. Yates, Hebrews: Partners with Christ (Denton, TX: Grace Evangelical Society, 2019), 32-33.

²⁸ Ibid., 40-43.

²⁹ E. F. Scott, The Epistles of Paul to the Colossians, to Philemon and to the Ephesians (London: MNTC, 1930), 189.

³⁰ Gary Derickson, “1 Peter,” in The Grace New Testament Commentary, ed. Robert N. Wilkin (Denton, TX: Grace Evangelical Society, 2019), 565.

³¹ Yates, Hebrews, 32-34.