Stanley Clark
Houston, TX

I. INTRODUCTION

Calvinism maintains that in eternity past God elected, or chose, certain people for eternal salvation.¹ Steele, Thomas, and Quinn summarized “Total Inability or Total Depravity” in this way:

Because of the fall, man is unable of himself to savingly believe the gospel. The sinner is dead, blind, and deaf to the things of God; his heart is deceitful and desperately corrupt. His will is not free, it is in bondage to his evil nature, therefore, he will not— indeed he cannot—choose good over evil in the spiritual realm. Consequently, it takes much more than the Spirit’s assistance to bring a sinner to Christ—it takes regeneration by which the Spirit makes the sinner alive and gives him a new nature. Faith is not something man contributes to salvation, but is itself part of God’s gift of salvation—it is God’s gift to the sinner, not the sinner’s gift to God.²

Electing individuals to be saved is considered necessary because man’s human nature was hopelessly corrupted at the fall. As a result, sinners are “dead in their trespasses and sins” (Eph 2:1-3). They are virtually spiritual corpses. They are unable even to respond to God until He regenerates those He has chosen. Once regenerated, they are able to exercise saving faith.

Palmer explains that for election to work it must be irresistible:

If it is true that God has unconditionally elected some to be saved…then of course, the Spirit has to work in an irresistible way. Otherwise, everyone because of his depravity would reject Christ, and then there would be no foreordination to eternal life. God could not be sure that those whom he elected would believe and be saved. The certainty of election means that the Spirit works certainly and that he accomplishes what God foreordained. Without the irresistible grace of God, there could be no foreordination or election.³

Palmer also explains that irresistible grace is critical to the entire system of Calvinism, or TULIP:

The five points of Calvinism all depend on each other. If T is true, then U is true, and so are L, and I, and P. They all hang or fall together [emphasis added].⁴

Steele, Thomas, and Quinn explain how irresistible grace works:

In addition to the outward general call to salvation, which is made to everyone who hears the gospel, the Holy Spirit extends to the elect a special inward call that inevitably brings them to salvation…By means of this special call the Spirit irresistibly draws [emphasis added] sinners to Christ…The Spirit graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate, to believe, to repent, to come freely and willingly to Christ. God’s grace, therefore, is invincible; it never fails to result in the salvation of those to whom it is extended.⁵

Steele, Thomas, and Quinn couch their explanation in soothing terms: “The Spirit graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate,” and the sinner comes “freely and willingly to Christ.” But the working of the Spirit is also invincible (that is, it overwhelms the sinner such that he can’t resist). It causes the sinner to cooperate.

The notion that the Holy Spirit does this by irresistibly drawing the sinner to Christ also sounds benign. But as explained below, the Calvinist conception of “draw” is hardly benign.

II. CALVINISM’S UNDERSTANDING OF HELKUO IN JOHN 6:44

The Calvinist’s primary proof text that God irresistibly draws sinners is John 6:44: “No one can come to me unless the Father who sent Me draws him, and I will raise him up on the last day.”

Olson notes that for some Calvinists, the drawing is so irresistible that they prefer to use the word “compel.”⁶ To other Calvinists, “draw” can be irresistible to the point of “dragging.” This is seen in this statement by Badger commenting on Palmer’s argument:

Palmer uses John 6:37, 44 to argue that Jesus taught irresistible grace…Palmer would argue that the certainty of the result⁷ as well as the meaning of the term ‘draw’ demonstrates the doctrine. Draw, he argues, is used of drawing fish irresistibly in a net (John 21:6, 11) [Palmer 371], of Peter drawing his sword irresistibly to cut off Malchus’ ear (John 18:10), Paul and Silas being drawn or dragged into the marketplace (Acts 16:19), and Paul being dragged out of the temple (Acts 21:30) by an irresistible mob [Palmer 372]. He says that in each of these cases the object is drawn irresistibly [Palmer 373].⁸

Badger then summarizes Palmer’s point: “The same force which extracts the fish drew Peter’s sword. The force that transported Paul and Silas couldn’t be resisted. It was too great. He compares and equates such force with the compulsion the Father must use toward His depraved, helpless elect.”⁹

To the Calvinist then, “drawing” is God’s irresistible work that “inevitably brings sinners to salvation”; it is so compelling that “draw” virtually means “drag.”

But is the meaning “draw irresistibly” to the point of “drag” the only option for “draw”? A study of the context of John 6:44, as well as how the word is used elsewhere, demonstrate that there is a better way to understand the word and what Jesus meant by, “No one can come to Me unless the Father who sent me draws him.”

III. THE LARGER CONTEXT OF JOHN 6:44

John 6:44 is found in a conversation that Jesus has with unbelieving Jews. They take exception to what He is teaching:

41 Therefore the Jews were grumbling about Him, because He said, “I am the bread that came down out of heaven.” 42 They were saying, “Is not this Jesus, the son of Joseph, whose father and mother we know? How does He now say, ‘I have come down out of heaven’”? 43 Jesus answered and said to them, “Do not grumble among yourselves. 44 No one can come to Me unless the Father who sent Me draws him [emphasis added]; and I will raise him up on the last day. 45 It is written in the prophets, ‘And they shall all be taught of God.’ Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father, comes to Me.”

In vv 41-42, John describes the grumbling reaction of the multitude to Jesus’ claim to have come down from heaven (v 38). In the Bible, grumbling is often associated with unbelief. Just as their forefathers’ unbelief at Massah and Meribah (Exod 17:7) provoked grumbling against Moses, the multitude’s unbelief (v 41) led to grumbling about Jesus: “How can this man be so presumptuous as to claim that He came down from heaven? We know who His parents are (v 42).”

In response to their unbelief, Jesus states what both Calvinists and non-Calvinists agree on. Sinners don’t seek God (Rom 3:10b–11). For sinners to come to Christ, God must “draw” them (John 12:32). The issue is, what does this drawing involve?

IV. IS “DRAG” THE ONLY MEANING FOR HELKUO?

For his doctoral dissertation, Robert Kerrey analyzed forty-two instances in which helkuō is used in Bible-related literature: eight in the NT, twenty-six in the Septuagint, and eight in the Apocrypha. He categorizes these according to the three possible definitions given in Bauer, Danker, Arndt and Gingrich (BDAG). Only the first two definitions are germane to this discussion.

Kerrey quotes the lexicon: “The first definition is: ‘to move an object from one area to another in a pulling motion, draw, with implication that the object being moved is incapable of propelling itself or in the case of pers. [person] is unwilling to do so voluntarily, in either case with implication of exertion on the part of the mover.’”¹⁰

Kerrey then comments on this first meaning for helkuō:

Six of the eight occurrences of helkuō in the New Testament are listed by BDAG as examples reflecting this meaning. In John 18:10, Peter “drew” a sword. In John 21:6, fishermen try to “haul” a fishing net into a boat, and then in John 21:11, Peter “hauled” the net ashore. In Acts 21:30, Paul was “dragged” out of the temple by the people. In Acts 16:19, Paul and Silas were “dragged” before the rulers by business owners. In James 2:6, the rich “drag”’ the oppressed into court. Under this definition, the active drawing is said to be physical and forcible.¹¹

These examples, of course, are the same ones to which Palmer refers. But Kerrey goes on to quote what else Bauer, Danker, Arndt and Gingrich say about helkuō: “The second definition is: to draw a pers. in the direction of values for inner life, draw, attract, an extended fig. use of meaning 1.”

The other two instances of helkuō in the New Testament are listed by BDAG as examples carrying this second meaning. One is John 12:32, where Jesus says, “…and I, when I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all people to myself” (ESV). The other example is our text, John 6:44, where the Father “draws” people to believe. Under this definition, the active drawing is figurative, nonphysical, and attractional.
Based on these definitions, the nature of one entity drawing another is either physical and forcible according to the first definition, or non-physical and attractional according to the second. The authors of this lexicon (BDAG) cast their vote for John 6:44 as an example of a non-physical, attractional drawing.¹²

Olson states succinctly the two different ways that the verb helkuō is used: “Note that the primary literal meaning of the verb ‘to draw, to drag’ has reference to physical objects, whereas figurative usage in reference to the inner life of a person is appropriately not coercive.”¹³ Physical objects must be dragged. They cannot come on their own. People however, when appropriately attracted, can respond and come of their own will.

“Draw,” when used of persons being drawn non-physically, does not have an aspect of irresistibility. Instead, the best way to understand Jesus’ statement in v 44 is not that the Father imposes belief to bring people to Christ, but that He works to “draw” them to Christ by means best described as attracting, influencing, persuading, and enlightening them.¹⁴

V. GOD DRAWS MEN TO CHRIST THROUGH THE WORD OF GOD

It is clear in John 6 that God draws men to Christ through the Word of God. Calvinists seem to miss this important point in the context. But Jesus highlights the role the Word plays in the process of drawing people in 6:45: “It is written in the prophets, ‘And they shall all be taught of God.’ Everyone who has heard and learned [emphasis added] from the Father, comes to Me.”

Kerrey points out that, “Jesus connects the drawing to teaching, saying, ‘It is written in the prophets, and they shall all be taught by God. Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me.’”¹⁵ “In v 44 the ones whom the Father draws come to Jesus; likewise, here in v 45, the ones whom the Father teaches come to Jesus.¹⁶ So both the drawn and the taught come, suggesting that the Father’s teaching is intrinsic to His drawing.”¹⁷

It is widely agreed that v 45, “And they shall all be taught of God,” is a paraphrase of Isa 54:13. In chapter 54, Isaiah is describing how God will embrace Israel anew when she receives her Messiah. When the Lord had cast them aside it was if they had been widowed. But God now reassures Israel that she does not have to fear being shamed for her past behavior:

“The reproach of your widowhood will be remembered no more…For the Lord has called you, like a wife forsaken and grieved in spirit, even like a wife of one’s youth when she is rejected [emphasis added] says your God. For a brief moment I forsook you, but with great compassion I will gather you. In an outburst of anger I hid my face from you for a moment; but with everlasting lovingkindness I will have compassion on you, says the Lord your Redeemer” (Isa 54:4, 6-8, NASB), emphasis added.

Isaiah is saying that despite God’s previous anger with the nation (54:8), He will call, or draw, the people of Israel back unto Himself. He will woo the people of Israel like a husband woos his wife with tender and persuasive words.

Jesus skips vv 9-12 of Isaiah 54 and quotes 13a: “All your sons will be taught of the Lord.” Even though Jesus doesn’t quote the second half of the verse, “and the wellbeing of your sons will be great” (13b; “great” in the Hebrew text is shalom), the meaning fits His point: When God’s people are taught of the Lord and respond, their lives are made complete, or whole. They are at peace with God, with one another, and with themselves.

So, the connection between teaching and wooing in John 6 is that in the same way that husbands woo, or draw, their wives with persuasive words, so God, in His great love for people, woos and draws them to Himself. One of the primary ways that He does that is through the teaching ministry of his Word.

It is not just John 6:44 that identifies the instruction of the Scriptures as a way God draws people, in this case unbelievers, unto Himself. Throughout the Gospel of John, Jesus points out that the OT Scriptures were given to point to Him as Messiah (5:37-40, 45-47; 7:14-18; 8:56-58; see also Luke 24:44).

The apostle Paul also testifies that the Word of God is one of the ways (perhaps the primary way) God brings unbelievers to faith: “Faith comes by hearing and hearing by the Word of God” (Rom 10:16). The Scriptures have a supernatural ability to convict men of “sin, righteousness, and judgment” (John 16:8-11), and persuade them that Jesus is the Savior they need. Through faith in Him, they can receive eternal life.

Of course, the Scriptures are not the only way that the Father draws men to the Son,¹⁸ but the fact that Jesus quotes Isaiah in John 6:45 indicates that it is an important way. But if the Scriptures are God’s way of bringing people to Christ, why were these Jews who were steeped in the OT not more responsive?

In John 5:38-40, Jesus explains the reason why: “You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; it is these that testify about me…(yet) you are unwilling [emphasis added] to come to Me” (5:39–40). The evidence was there. It was not that these people were not elect. It was hardness of heart. The unbelieving Jews were simply unwilling to believe their own Scriptures. Olson observes that it was not just during Jesus’ ministry that God intended the Scriptures to bring men to Christ. This is the same method that He uses today:

So, how are people drawn to Christ? The context of John 6:44 makes clear that they were drawn by the testimony of Abraham, Moses, and the prophets of the Old Testament Scriptures, as contemporary Jews checked out the supernatural credentials of Jesus of Nazareth and concluded with Nathaniel, “Rabbi, You are the Son of God; You are the King of Israel” (Jn. 1:49). Now since Pentecost, God has used the apostolic message and ministry, working mediately through Christian witnesses. It is as simple as that.¹⁹

An additional observation can be made about verse 45b: “Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to Me.” Learning here is coupled with hearing. It’s possible to hear without learning. “Learning” implies being changed by what has been heard. Throughout the Gospels, Jesus’ admonitions to listen or hear are set forth as something not to be engaged in passively. This is seen in the Greek text where Jesus’ admonition, “whoever has ears to hear, let him hear” includes an imperative: “Let him hear” (Matt 11:15). Hearing carries with it the responsibility of responding. If it was something that was automatic, the Lord would not command it. That is why it is those who “learned” from the OT Scriptures who came to Jesus in faith. The unbelieving Jews, on the other hand, heard the same Scriptures, but stubbornly refused to believe. As stated above, they were unwilling to do so.

VI. CONCLUSION

Calvinists contend that John 6:44, “no one can come to me unless the Father draws him,” supports irresistible grace. This means that God overpowers the elect to figuratively “drag” them to Christ.

Kerry demonstrates that “drag” is an appropriate meaning for helkuō when used of inanimate objects such as a fishing net or sword. But Bauer, Danker, Arndt and Gingrich state that a second meaning of the word is to be used if it applies to animate objects. In these cases, the word has the notion of “woo,” “draw,” “entice.” Thus, God’s drawing of lost sinners is not coercive. The use of helkuō in the Septuagint of Isaiah 54:13 likens the drawing of a nation estranged from God to that of a husband who woos his wife with tender words.

The best way to understand Jesus’ statement in v 44 is not that the Father imposes belief to bring people to Christ, but that He works to “draw” them to Christ by means best described as attracting, influencing, persuading, and enlightening them.²⁰ So while inanimate objects are dragged; animate objects (people) are drawn or attracted.

As noted by Olson above, this is the way “draw” is used in John 6:44 because people, not inanimate objects are in view. Furthermore, Jesus says that God draws sinners to Himself by the hearing of the Word (Rom 10:14), which convicts sinners of sin, righteousness and judgment—that is, it persuades them of their need of a Savior.

A correct understanding of John 6:44 does not prove that all of Calvinism is invalid. What it does is demonstrate that v 44 cannot be used to support the I in TULIP.

VII. APPENDIX

This chart is from Robert Kerrey’s book, How Does God Draw People to Believe in Jesus?, 138-40.

All Uses of helkuō in the New Testament and Septuagint

Reference	Verbal Sense of helkuō	Entities Drawing	Entities Drawn	Definition (BDAG)	Willing?
Deut 21:3	Heifer draws a yoke	Impersonal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg. 5:14	People draw a staff	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg 20:2	Men draw a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg 20:15	Men draw a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg 5:17	Men draw a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg 20:25	Men draw a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg 20:35	Men draw a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Judg 20:46	Men draw a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
2 Sam 22:17	The Lord draws David	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Willing
Neh 9:30	The Lord draws along with Israel	Personal	None	3. Intransitive	Does not apply
Job 20:28	Destruction draws a house	Impersonal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Job 28:18	You draw wisdom	Personal	Impersonal	2. Nonphysical	Does not apply
Job 39:10	An ox draws furrows	Impersonal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Ps 10:9 (9:30 LXX)	The wicked draw the poor	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical or 2. Nonphysical	Willing
Ps 118:131	The psalmist draws a breath	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Prov 25:20	Vinegar draws a sore or soda	Impersonal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Eccl 1:5	The sun draws along to its place	Impersonal	None	3. Intransitive	Does not apply
Eccl 2:3	Qoheleth draws his body with wine	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Song 1:4	Women (or the bride) draw(s) the groom	Personal	Personal	1. Physical or 2. Nonphysical	Willing
Hab 1:15	The wicked draw the righteous	Personal	Personal	1. Physical or 2. Nonphysical	Unwilling
Isa 10:15	A person draws a saw	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Jer 14:6	Donkeys draw wind	Impersonal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Jer 31:3 (38:3 LXX)	The Lord draws Israel	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
Jer 38:13	Men draw Jeremiah	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Willing
Dan 4:14 (4:17 LXX)	Nebuchadnezzar draws leaves from a tree	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Dan 7:10	A stream of fire draws along from the throne	Impersonal	None	3. Intransitive	Does not apply

New Testament Uses of helkuō

John 6:44	The father draws one who comes	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
John 12:32	Jesus draws all people	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
John 18:10	Peter draws a sword	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
John 21:6	Fishermen draw a net	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
John 21:11	Peter draws a net	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
Acts 16:19	Business owners draw Paul and Silas	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
Acts 21:30	People draw Paul	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
Jas 2:6	The rich draw the oppressed	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling

Extra–canonical

1 Macc 10:82	Simon draws troops	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Willing
3 Macc 4:7	Captors draw captives	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
3 Macc 5:49	Infants draw milk	Personal	Impersonal	1. Physical	Does not apply
4 Macc 11:9	Guards draw a brother	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
4 Macc 14:13	Parental love draws everyone	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
4 Macc 15:11	Love draws a mother	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
Wis 19:4	Fate draws enemies	Impersonal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
Sir 28:19	A person draws the tongue’s yoke	Personal	Impersonal	2. Nonphysical	Does not apply

Willingness to be Drawn Among Persons Drawn Physically

II Sam 22:17	The Lord draws David	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Willing
Ps 10:9 (9:30 LXX)	The wicked draw the poor	Personal	Personal	1. Physical 2. Nonphysical	Willing
Song 1:4	Women (or the bride) draw(s) the groom	Personal	Personal	1. Physical or 2. Nonphysical	Willing
Jer 38:13 (45:13 LXX)	Men draw Jeremiah	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Willing
1 Macc 10:82	Simon draws troops	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Willing
Hab 1:15	The wicked draw the righteous	Personal	Personal	1. Physical or 2. Nonphysical	Unwilling
Acts 16:19	Business owners draw Paul and Silas	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
Acts 21:30	People draw Paul	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
Jas 2:6	The rich draw the oppressed	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
3 Macc 4:7	Captors draw captors	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling
4 Macc 11:9	Guards draw a brother	Personal	Personal	1. Physical	Unwilling

Willingness to be Drawn Among Persons Drawn Non-Physically

Ps 10:9 (9:30 LXX)	The wicked draw the poor	Personal	Personal	1. Physical 2. Nonphysical	Willing
Song 1:4	Women (or the bride) draw(s) the groom <3	Personal	Personal	1. Physical 2. Nonphysical	Willing
Jer 31:3 (38:3 LXX)	The Lord draws Israel <3	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
John 6:44	The father draws one who comes <3	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
John 12:32	Jesus draws all people <3	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
4 Macc 14:13	Parental love draws everyone <3	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
4 Macc 15:11	Love draws a mother <3	Personal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
Wis 19:4	Fate draws enemies	Impersonal	Personal	2. Nonphysical	Willing
Hab 1:15	The wicked draw the righteous	Personal	Personal	1. Physical or 2. Nonphysical	Unwilling

<3 The heart symbol “highlights the prevalent theme of love as an attractional force that draws.” Kerrey, 145.

__________

¹ Calvinists say that election is necessary because man is “totally depraved.”

² David N. Steele, Curtis C. Thomas, and S. Lance Quinn, The Five Points of Calvinism: Defined, Defended, and Documented, Second Edition (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 2004), 5-6.

³ Edwin H. Palmer, The Five Points of Calvinism (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1972), 61.

⁴ Ibid., 60.

⁵ Steele, Thomas, and Quinn, The Five Points, 7.

⁶ C. Gordon Olson, Beyond Calvinism and Arminianism (Cedar Knolls, NJ: Global Gospel Publishers, 2002), 241. He makes particular reference to Sproul and Boettner. Interestingly though, Calvin’s own view was more moderate: “.…as to the kind of ‘drawing,’ it is not violent, so as to compel men by external force; but still it is a powerful impulse of the Holy Spirit, which makes men willing who formerly were unwilling and reluctant,” John Calvin, Commentary on the Gospel According to John, trans. William Pringle, vol 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1979), 1:257. Quoted in Robert J. Kerrey How Does God Draw People to Believe in Jesus? (The Woodlands, TX: Grace Theology Press, 2019), 31.

⁷ Calvinists reason that since hopelessly depraved sinners do come to Christ in response to God’s drawing, the drawing must be irresistible.

⁸ Anthony B. Badger, Confronting Calvinism: A Free Grace Refutation and Biblical Resolution of Radical Reformed Soteriology (N.p.: N.p., 2013), 269.

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Bauer, Walter, William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 2nd ed. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 251, emphasis in original.

¹¹ Kerrey, How, 31.

¹² Ibid., 135-36.

¹³ Olson, Beyond Calvinism and Arminianism, 240.

¹⁴ Adapted from Kerrey, How Does God Draw, 156.

¹⁵ Kerrey, How Does God Draw, 148.

¹⁶ Köstenberger comments, “In Judaism it was held that to learn the Torah was to be taught by God himself” (Andreas Köstenberger, John, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2004], 214.

¹⁷ Kerrey, How Does God Draw, 148, emphasis in original.

¹⁸ Kerrey, How Does God Draw, 168-73, describes other ways that God draws unbelievers to Christ, especially during the earthly ministry of Christ. He summarizes them on page 173: “…1) the person of Jesus Himself offered as the bread of life; 2) the Word of God from which we hear and learn; 3) authenticating signs; 4) progressive illumination where human receptivity brings more divine truth; 5) interpersonal proclamation of the gospel; 6) Christ’s loving sacrifice on the cross; 7) the Holy Spirit’s ministry of reproof; 8) creation, which testifies to God’s existence; and 9) the godly behavior of believers.” He acknowledges there may be others.

¹⁹ Olson, Beyond Calvinism and Arminianism, 241, emphasis in original.

²⁰ Adapted from Kerrey, How Does God Draw, 156.